Heather norton rushton

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Gina Mansfield - Gina Canfield - Gina Canfield - titaniallor. Gia Mansfield - Flickr photos, groups, and tags related to the "jaynemansfield" Flickr tag. Flickr Identity. Jayne Mansfield Flickr.

Connecting people through photography. Home Joys. Search by Name Please enter a First Name. Please enter a Last Name. Search Tools. Country USA. Gina Mansfield 64 yrs. Gina L. Gina M. Mansfield 39 yrs. Sponsored by BeenVerified. Sponsored by PeopleLooker. Email Addresses. These European color traits have evolved along separate trajectories, yet the goal seems similar—a shift toward brighter and more visible colors. But visible to whom? To the opposite sex? Sexual selection favors visual qualities that catch the attention of potential mates.

In the case of skin color, a pre-existing sexual dimorphism has made lighter skin a visible female characteristic. When shown a human face, subjects can recognize its sex even if the image is blurred and differs only in color Tarr et al. The specific cues are hue and luminosity. A woman has higher luminous contrast between her facial skin and her lips or eyes Dupuis-Roy et al.

These cues may explain the similar evolution of cosmetics in a wide range of culture areas, i. Thus, the more a woman is lighter-skinned, the more she is recognizably female. This is not just a matter of conscious sex recognition. Even when a woman is recognized as such, her mating success may be influenced by subtle differences in the way men perceive her femininity.

Extreme sexual selection on the European steppe-tundra. But if sexual selection were the cause, why did it occur only 19, to 11, years ago and only in Europe?

What was so special about that time and place? That time frame coincides with the last ice age 25,, BP , particularly the glacial maximum 20,, BP. In Europe, especially on the northern and eastern plains, there were now vast expanses of steppe-tundra that supported herds of wandering reindeer and other herbivores, which in turn supported a large human population.

Steppe-tundra also existed in Asia, but it was colder and drier, being farther north and farther from the moderating influence of the Atlantic Ocean. Its human population was not only smaller but also more vulnerable to periodic extinctions, particularly at the height of the last ice age. It offered an abundance of food, but almost all of the food was in the form of meat. Since hunting was primarily a male activity, men had to bear almost the entire burden of food provisioning.

Women either processed the food that men supplied or did activities unrelated to food, such as garment making or shelter building.

There were also demographic consequences. First, polygyny became less common, being limited to those able hunters who could support more than one family. Second, the death rate among young males increased. In hunter-gatherer societies, the male death rate increases with hunting distance, reaching a maximum in environments where hunters pursue migratory herds over long distances.

As a result, women greatly outnumbered men on the mate market. Women had to compete for the attention of potential mates, and sexual selection favored the mating success of those who could. In other species, sexual selection changes physical appearance from a dull, cryptic coloration to a brighter, more eye-catching one.

This is especially true for traits on or near the face—the focus of visual attention. Since most genes for human skin, hair, and eye color are not sex-linked, any selection for new color traits in one sex would spill over onto the other sex. As European women whitened, so did Europeans of both sexes. In time, sexual selection also leads to sexual dimorphism. Sex-linked alleles would appear through random mutation and gradually replace similar alleles that are not sex-linked.

Some sexual dimorphism is indeed evident in European color traits. A twin study has shown that hair is lighter-colored in women than in men, with red hair being especially more frequent, and that women show greater variation in hair color Shekar et al. Conclusion White European skin evolved relatively fast during the last ice age, specifically from 19, to 11, years ago. This was also probably the same time frame for the evolution of European hair and eye colors.

These color traits—white skin and a diverse palette of hair and eye colors— are not adaptations to a cooler, less sunny climate. They are adaptations by early European women to intense mate competition, specifically a shortage of potential mates due to a low polygyny rate and a high death rate among young men.

This situation was created by the steppe-tundra that covered most of Europe as late as 10, years ago. Early Europeans were able to colonize this environment but only at the price of a severe imbalance between men and women on the mate market.

References Beleza, S. Murias dos Santos, B. McEvoy, I. Alves, C. Martinho, E. Cameron, M. Shriver, E. The use of pigmentation and shading information in recognising the sex and identities of faces, Perception , 23 7 , — Dupuis-Roy, N. Fortin, D. Uncovering gender discrimination cues in a realistic setting, Journal of Vision , 9 2 , 10, 1—8. Edwards, E. The pigments and color of living human skin, American Journal of Anatomy , 65 , Frost, P.

Vitamin D deficiency among northern Native Peoples: a real or apparent problem? Reply to W. Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology , 2 4 , European hair and eye color - A case of frequency-dependent sexual selection? Gibbons, A. Science 20 April Vol. Perceiving the sex and race of faces: The role of shape and colour, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , , — Hoffecker, J. Desolate Landscapes. Loomis, W. Scientific American , , Murray, F.

Pigmentation, sunlight, and nutritional disease. American Anthropologist , 36 , Norton, H. Hammer Russell, R. Why cosmetics work. In Adams, R. The Science of Social Vision. New York: Oxford. A sex difference in facial pigmentation and its exaggeration by cosmetics. Perception , 38 , Sex, beauty, and the relative luminance of facial features, Perception , 32 , Real-world face recognition: The importance of surface reflectance properties, Perception , 36 , Sinha, I.

Is pigmentation important for face recognition? Evidence from contrast negation, Perception , 35 , Shekar, S. Duffy, T. Frudakis, G. Montgomery, M.

James, R. Spectrophotometric methods for quantifying pigmentation in human hair—Influence of MC1R genotype and environment. Photochemistry and Photobiology , 84 , — Sweet, F. The paleo-etiology of human skin tone. Tarr, M. Kersten, Y. Posted by Peter Frost at AM. Labels: Europeans , eye color , hair color , Heather Norton , sexual selection , skin color , vitamin D. Newer Post Older Post Home.

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